Written by: Tina Sumerta, Year 13

Fat, or should I say losing fat, seems to be all the rage nowadays. After reading countless magazines and ads claiming to know the best way to “burn” fat, it left me wondering: where exactly does the fat go? Does it disappear under the treadmill after a 20 minute run? Does it vanish into the mysterious world of Fatlandia? Luckily, I have found the answer to this highly important scientific inquiry.

Most people know that the basic principle of weight loss is that, in order to lose weight, you have to use more energy than the amount you consume.
Fat cells are specialized cells that store fat in the form of triglycerides, and they do so in order to have a stored form of energy. Conversely, these cells shrink when you lose more energy than you consume.

Interestingly, you can’t actually lose fat cells. 

Like ever. 

However, you can gain fat cells. Regular overeating over a long period of time can increase the number of fat cells in your body. Most humans carry about 10 billion to 30 billion fat cells. People who are obese can have more than 100 billion fat cells. Therefore, the size of the fat cells can shrink or expand, but they will always remain in your body.

Having said that, there is a way to lose fat cells; the big L word. As some of you may know already, liposuction is a surgical procedure that involves removing fat cells from the body. There is no natural method to remove fat cells. However, even with liposuction there will still be a lot of fat cells remaining, and these can always get bigger or smaller. Liposuction is in no way a guarantee to keep the excess fat away. The best way to keep the fat off– and yes you’ve heard this before – is to eat with a balanced diet and to exercise regularly.

The neuroscience behind an itch

Written by Elijah Lagman, Year 13

“There is pleasure when an itch is scratched. But to be without an itch is more pleasurable still.” – Nāgārjuna, Buddhist philosopher Let’s put the question out there: Why do we itch? Well, I can confidently tell you it’s because that part of your body is itchy… but you already knew that, didn’t you? Recent research has tried to more adequately explain this mystery. The National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research reported that a molecule known as neuropeptide natriuretic polypeptide b (Nppb) is released from specific nerve cells in the skin, and is responsible for the itching sensations we feel.  The molecule is actually released quite far from the actual itch site, but it triggers an electrochemical cascade that ultimately tempts the brain to scratch the “itchy” area. A class of nerve cells known as TRPV1-expressing neurons are responsible for pain, itch and heat. This was proven in 2013, when neuroscientists Hoon and Mishra genetically engineered mice born without these neurons, and the mice could not feel such sensations. Now, although this experiment is quite ethically questionable, I still think it’s scientifically sound!  After all, imagine a cold-blooded mouse; this mouse would probably die immediately if released in the wild.  Now that’s a perfect example of how natural selection works. But I digress. Let’s continue. Hoon and Mishra also found that a specific subset of these TRPV cells that sense itchiness produce Nppb, unlike their pain-sensing cousins. So if you stimulate the skin with, let’s say, a strand of hair, or maybe even slowly stroke it with a feather, a signal is sent across sensory neurons to the brain through the release of these Nppb molecules. Because of this, Hoon and Mishra followed up their cold-blooded mouse experiment, and engineered mice that specifically lacked the variation of the TPPV1 neuron responsible for sending itches.  The results--if you haven’t already guessed--were mice that sensed heat and pain, but not itches. However, although we were able to find a neural explanation for why we itch, other  questions have also arisen, such as ‘why does scratching the itch make it go away?’ Sadly, the answers to these questions remain undiscovered. The sense of pain and itch is different. This leads to some ethical considerations. Torture is highly associated with pain and one can sufficiently argue that a douse of urushiol (drop from poison ivy) can make a person do some serious self-harm—so don’t get any ideas.

Anyway, here’s my two cents: When you get an itch, don’t scratch it unless you’re a masochist.  

Works cited: 

• Solved! The Mystery of the Maddening Itch

• Why we scratch an itch: the molecules, cells and circuits of itch

Written by Paolo Vera and Gabby Rivera

Air. We breathe it every day, yet most people do not know the captivating story of how it was discovered. Oxygen was officially ‘found’ in 1772 but its properties were first observed during the Byzantine Empire, around 2nd century BCE. Over the succeeding centuries, different civilizations had inconsistent ideas about oxygen, making it one the most misunderstood elements on the periodic table. This complex yet vital building block of life eluded scientists for nearly a millenium.

The predecessor of oxygen was a substance known as ‘phlogiston.’ It was discovered by George Stahl, a German scientist. Phlogiston was then believed to be the universal component of fire contained in every combustible object. This theory explained why an object’s mass decreased when burned, as its phlogiston components were lost to the air.

Antoine Lavoisier was introduced to phlogiston while he was in university pursuing a law degree. In 1772, he abandoned law and decided to pursue a career in science. Lavoisier was researching the combustion of phosphorus and sulfur when he realised that the masses of the substances increased upon heating. From that point on, Lavoisier viewed Stahl’s widely accepted theory with suspicion.

Together with fellow scientist, Joseph Priestley, Lavoisier collected a gas, which was free from phlogiston. It increased respiration and caused candles to burn for longer periods of time. In 1779, Lavoisier presented his theory of combustion completely removed of phlogiston to the Royal Academy of Sciences. His theory centered around the gas, which was contained in most acids. Lavoisier called this gas oxygène, after the two Greek words for acid generator.

Today, most modern scientists dismiss the idea of phlogiston as a foolish theory conceived during an unsophisticated era. However, if the idea was so senseless, why was it widely accepted by numerous academics during its time? To be completely objective, we must take into consideration the technological limits of Stahl’s era. With the equipment and knowledge he had access to, Stahl crafted a fairly reasonable explanation for combustion. If we were transported back to the 18th century, would we have ridiculed this discovery? Would we have thought differently?          

 by Tina Sumerta, Year 13

Four years ago, 38-year-old Polish, Darek Fidyka, was a victim of a knife attack. Left with an 8mm gap in his spinal cord, Fidyka became paralyzed from the chest down. Thankfully, his nose remained unscathed.

Two years ago, Fidyka underwent an operation involving the transplant of olfactory ensheathing cells into his damaged spinal cord – the olfactory ensheathing cells taken from the olfactory bulb in his nose. The treatment, developed by scientists at University College of London, has enabled Fidyka to walk again, albeit with the aid of a Zimmer frame.

So how does this ground-breaking treatment work exactly?

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) surround the olfactory axons, which are nerve fibers that conduct electrical messages from the nose to the brain allowing the sense of smell. What makes them particularly useful in treatment for spinal cord injuries is that they provide an environment that promotes axon growth, thus allowing the neurons in the spinal cord to regenerate. Researchers have found that when OEC’s were added to a damaged spinal cord in rats, the spinal cord was shown to regenerate, resulting in a recovery of sensation and movement. Based on this research, scientists at University College of London were able to find ways to inject OEC’s into the spinal cord of humans.

However, before OEC’s can be injected into a patient’s spinal cord, they must be taken from the patient and grown in higher quantities. This is done by removing one of the patient’s olfactory bulb located in the nose, and taking the OEC’s from the olfactory bulb to be grown in culture. The OEC’s are then transplanted into the injured spinal cord by injecting the OEC’s above and below the injury. Scientists believe that the OEC’s provide a pathway to enable the fibres above and below the injury to reconnect, thus bridging the gap in the spinal cord.

The fact that Fidyka can walk again is a testament to the success of this treatment. Professor Geoffrey Raisman, the leader of the team of scientists at University College of London who conducted the research, described Fidyka’s first steps as “more impressive than man walking on the moon.” Professor Raisman plans to repeat this treatment on other patients in the next few years, and hopefully will achieve the same outstanding results.

Written by
Elijah Lagman, Year 13

The advent of the information age and digital revolution sparked a development in the young growing field of neuroscience. Brain imaging devices, electronic detectors of different kinds of brain activity i.e. electric potentials of neurons in the scalp: Electroencephalogram (EEG), radioactive glucose detection of brain activity: Positron Emission Tomography (PET), and multiple x-rays at different angles of the brain: Computer Axial Tomography (CAT), to name a few, have allowed neuroscientists to study the living human brain as opposed to the traditional observation and dissection techniques in humans and animals post-mortem. Recently, modern neuroscience has received a new champion of research in the mysteries it actively tries to unravel.

The 2014 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to John O’Keefe of University College London and the husband and wife team May-Britt and Edward Moser from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology for their discoveries of nerve cells in the brain (place and grid cells) that enable a sense of place and navigation. Not only does their work parallel modern technological advancement but it also informs us on how the brain can process complex tasks such as memory and their roles in the expression of behaviour.

Place cells

Place cells provide the brain with a spatial reference map system, or a sense of place (O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978). This means that a specific neuronal firing pattern is activated when in specific places. O’Keefe found this firing in the hippocampus, a part of the brain known to play a role in memory formation. O’Keefe employed a different technique to the traditional recording norm and recorded electrical activity in free moving animals. Results showed how the brain maps and remembers places it has been to.

Grid cells

Grid cells fire when the animal reaches particular locations arranged in a hexagonal pattern in the entorhinal cortex. The Mosers found that the distance of the grid fields varies in this cortex depending on distance to a certain location. They concluded that these patterns were part of a navigation integration system.

 O’Keefe and the Mosers then discovered numerous relationships between place cells and grid cells that led them to discover the emergent property of a sense of direction. These discoveries present a paradigm shift in our understanding of how specialized cells work together to execute higher cognitive functions. Hence, new studies on grid and place cells are now being further investigated not only for the brain’s “GPS” system but also for many other emergent cognitive processes that arise from these cells working together.

         We are learning more about how the brain works in performing these involuntary, subconscious functions. I think these discoveries have a moral lesson. We should value the importance of a team and the roles each individual plays in achieving a task. The brain doesn’t necessarily have a part that controls everything but with all of its specialized cells working together, the brain emerges as the ‘leader’ of other systems in the body. In other words, it seems that collectivism is more important than individualism in achieving higher goals, and with the digital age now upon us, we have a much more sophisticated way of efficiently sharing information.

Further reading:

·      More on Grid and Place cells and how the Nobel prize was awarded (pictures also came from here)
·      More on ideas of “emergence”, the idea that smaller less complicated functions can work together to achieve higher, more complex functions. http://vserver1.cscs.lsa.umich.edu/~crshalizi/notabene/emergent-properties.html http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/properties-emergent/

·      More on neuroimaging and brain imaging techniques http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/f/functional_neuroimaging.htm

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1552-6569

Written by:
Elijah Lagman, Year 13

For centuries, humanity has relied on philosophers to ponder on the topic of free will. Volition (free will) is defined as the “capacity of rational agents to choose a course of action from among various alternatives.” (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) This age-long quagmire may well have existed since the idea of God came into question. The philosopher Immanuel Kant stated in The Critique of Pure Reason that “[One of the] unavoidable problems of mere pure reason [is the] freedom of will”. This, however, did not stop him from believing in it. It simply occurred to him that “[we] must… abolish knowledge, to make room for belief”. Science owes their method to the philosophers’ systematic organization of facts but have diverted from pure reasoning (rationalism) to relying on observable quantifiable data. It therefore follows that most scientists would stray from the almost experimentally impossible concept of volition. However, the advancement of brain-imaging technology led a few pioneering scientists to take technology beyond its limits and find a cause for volition, if it exists.

In 1981, Libet asked his participants to flick their wrist whenever they felt like it using an EEG and found that before participants were even aware of the urge, an electron potential has already been fired. This implies that volition may be an illusion and all of our conscious decisions may have already been predetermined. We simply believe we are making decisions on our own accord that may then have profound effects on ethics and law. According to Bandura, volition is affected by our intentions, forethought (goal directed behaviour), self-reactiveness and self-reflectiveness (Social Cognitive Theory, Bandura, 2008).

This suggests a further link that there may be a neural basis for volition within the brain. Schultz et al. (1992) trained Macaca fascicularis monkeys to carry out specific behavioural tasks each day for a few hours (Apicella et al. 1992), recording neuro-electrical activity within the basal ganglia. Shultz et al., (1995) found that the results “indicate that the basal ganglia are involved when intentions to obtain goal objects lead to actions directed at these outcomes.” The basal ganglion is a component in all primates but we don’t view all primates to possess volition. This being said, humans have evolved their brains to include the outer layers called the neocortex (literally, ‘new bark’), an area known to perform more complex functions that primates cannot normally accomplish. Hence, these findings further suggest that the basal ganglia may be a component basis for intentions that the human neocortex interacts with in order to achieve volition.

        However, there are flaws in these connections. Bandura criticizes Libet, arguing that volition is not directed by urges to flick one’s wrists but rather, has a deeper criteria defined by his social cognitive theory (SCT). Libet himself also criticizes his own study and suggests from further studies that we may be limited to having free will only to veto decisions already made by the brain. This interaction between different disciplines (Libet’s neuroscience, Bandura’s sociocognitive psychology and Shultz’s neurobiology) argues that volition is a trans-disciplinary issue that needs to be explored further. So far, we found that there may be a neural basis for free will within the brain’s basal ganglia but must consider that many more factors also contribute to we can surely define as volition. We are moving towards a scientific explanation for free will but aren’t quite there yet but it’s great to see that science is finally starting to acknowledge free will as scientifically valid for exploring and evaluating.

Deadly Viruses and You: Everything you need to know about the Ebola Outbreak

Written by: 

Caolan Disini, Year 13

It is commonly accepted that, when in a crisis, staying calm and thinking clearly is your best bet at getting through unscathed. Knowledge is power. This is why you should know more about Ebola, the latest viral outbreak in Africa that has the potential to boom out of control. Although current figures number the infected at approximately 7,000, this number can grow even further if left unchecked. In short, if nothing is done soon, the Ebola virus is a global catastrophe just waiting to happen.

Firstly, let’s go through some information on Ebola and the current outbreak in Africa. Despite there only having been a limited number of outbreaks and casualties compared to other viruses, Ebola is one of the most virulent diseases known to man. This is due to its high mortality rate, which in some cases can reach up to 90%, and the fact that it has no known cure. Infections occur as a result of direct skin contact with the bodily fluids of an infected individual, which includes the sharing of water or other fluids; luckily, however, Ebola is not airborne. Yet, the virus still remains on dead bodies, making funerals or other funerary cultural practices that witness a gathering of individuals dangerous. Once infected by the disease, the virus incubates inside the body for 2-21 days, during which time the host is not infectious in any way. Symptoms only manifest once the virus has finished its incubation period. These include fever, headaches, vomiting, and, most notably, internal and external bleeding.

The Ebola virus that is spreading in Western Africa at the moment is called the Zaire Ebola Virus, the most dangerous of the Ebola strains. Yes, unfortunately there is more than one virus that can cause Ebola. As well as being the most lethal, it is responsible for the vast majority of Ebola outbreaks since its discovery. Currently, it is responsible for the deadliest outbreak to date. The first recorded case originated from Guinea on December 2013, and in the span of 9 months, the disease had spread to Liberia, Sierra Leone, Senegal, and Nigeria. The spread of this virus can be attributed to the lack of information received by understaffed healthcare services in the area, as well as improperly handled medical procedures. Furthermore, the cultural aspect of funerals in African society unwittingly spreads the disease even further when many funeral-goers make physical contact with the dead and unknowingly contract Ebola.

The current procedures being undertaken by the World Health Organization and various governments highlight the severity of the outbreak: one method involves monitoring all the people who are believed to have come into contact with the virus for 21 days. Although very effective in a small outbreak, it requires a vast amount of manpower to watch everybody who might have the disease – not to mention the education such personnel would require to be able to spot Ebola symptons in order to avoid getting infected themselves. Now, with almost 7,000 cases, this task may do little to help the current crisis. Luckily, however, the current quarantine procedures being enacted in Liberia are proving to be very effective. The rushed development of two separate treatments provide a glimmer of hope for those who are at risk of being infected by the disease.

So what happens if Ebola comes knocking your door? The first thing you should do is not have any contact with a person you believe to be exhibiting signs of Ebola. This sounds heartless, but the only way that Ebola spreads is through direct skin contact. The best thing you can do is to notify a health official about a case, as they are better equipped at treating the disease. However, if you are unable to do that, you should keep the infected individual hydrated to increase survival rates, as they are very prone to dehydration. When treating someone with Ebola, always wear protective gear, especially those that protect the hands and the eyes. Be aware... it is not recommended that you treat people with Ebola.

Written by:

Ryan Heng, Year 12

In the 1988 Olympics, Kenya shocked the running world when its top male runner won the 800m, 1500m and 5000m and the 3000m steeplechase. Based on population percentages alone, the likelihood of such a performance is one in 1.6 billion. Since then, black athletes have been dominating both the speed and endurance aspects of running.

There is substantial statistical data showing the superiority of blacks in running. Blacks including African Americans who trace their ancestry back to West Africa hold more than 95 percent of the top times in sprinting. Athletes from Kenya make up more than one-third of the top times in middle and long distance races; including top performances by other East Africans (most from Ethiopia), that domination swells to almost 50 percent. Mexicans (Native Americans) are strongest at longer races such as 10,000 meters and the marathon.

There are many theories as to why blacks seem to be faster sprinters and endurance runners than whites. In 1995, when British athlete Sir Roger Bannister spoke of 'certain natural anatomical advantages' possessed by 'black sprinters and black athletes in general' at the British Association for the Advancement of Science, he provoked a mixture of fear, anxiety and silence. Sir Roger believed that blacks possess certain anatomical differences that make them naturally better sprinters.

Edward Jones, a professor at Howard University who specializes in adolescent obesity, nutrition and body composition, conducted an investigation into this phenomenon. The study concludes that black athletes may outperform athletes of other races in running events because their center of gravity tends to be higher, as shown in the differences of the length of their limbs and the structure of their bodies.

"Blacks tend to have longer limbs with smaller circumferences, meaning that their centers of gravity are higher compared to whites of the same height. Asians and whites tend to have longer torsos, so their centers of gravity are lower," said Adrian Bejan, Jones' co-author who is also an engineering professor at Duke University.

"These differences are small, and we don't really see them when we look at someone, but these small differences certainly matter in races lasting less than 10 seconds," Bejan told Life's Little Mysteries. He adds, “A person's center of gravity affects how fast his feet are moving when they hit the ground. Each step a runner takes is like falling, except the athlete breaks the fall with his foot. So the feet of a person with a higher center of gravity will hit the ground faster than someone with a lower center of gravity.”

Apart from center of gravity, research carried out at Laval University found that on average, blacks have more fast-twitch muscle fibers compared to whites who tend to have more slow-twitch muscle fiber. Fast-twitch muscle fibers are thought to be better adapted to power movements such as leaping or sprinting. As such, blacks seem to dominate sprinting as they have a more natural sprinting body.

This would scientifically and quite convincingly explain why blacks with West African origins hold 95% of the top times in sprinting. Then what would explain black domination in endurance running?

Even though whites tend to have more slow-twitch muscles, which are better adapted in endurance running in long races, this does not make a big difference in race times. Although white runners match or surpass black runners at distances up to 5km, black runners are “clearly superior at distances greater than 5km.” Research at the University of Cape Town shows that blacks are able to run at a higher maximum oxygen capacity, while whites lag behind by nearly 10 percent. The muscles of black athletes also reveal fewer signs of fatigue, as measured by lactic acid concentration.

This presents a nature/nurture conundrum: Does hard training lead to a change in oxidative capacity and fatigue resistance or does it merely reflect a genetically well-endowed athletic machine? In my opinion, the complete domination of black athletes in sprinting and endurance races indicates that blacks are favoured by genetics, with higher chances of having high muscle efficiency. Hard training will certainly improve oxidative capacity and fatigue resistance of the muscles, but the innate advantages the blacks possess will always make them more superior to the whites in running.

Written by:

Ryan Heng, Year 12

Written by:

Elijah Lagman, Year 12

“70% of deaths are related to preventable diseases. Are you protected?” - Johns Hopkins Medicine

Following the success of World health day last April 7, the World Health Organization (WHO) will be launching “World Malaria Day” on April 25 and “World Immunization Week” from April 24-28. Focusing on raising awareness for vaccine-less diseases, such as Malaria, World Malaria Day aims to promote knowledge of protection schemes against such dangerous illnesses. World Immunization Week, in addition, emphasizes the importance of vaccines and their usefulness in combating diseases. Though distinctively different in several important aspects, both days have been put together because of their common theme of malaria.

The primary focus of World Malaria Day, malaria is a dangerous disease that currently has no medically accepted vaccine. World Malaria Day, therefore, aims to educate individuals on possible preventive measures, to combat countless deaths worldwide. In addition to Malaria, these few days will also focus on other life threatening vectors - the term given for small organisms that can carry serious disease. In the Philippines, for instance, the dengue mosquito has the potential to induce strong cases of fever amongst the populace, termed, fittingly, ‘dengue fever’. Dengue fever may result in two of the following life-threatening situations: dengue hemorrhagic fever, which involves low levels of platelet count, bleeding and blood vessel leakage, and dengue shock syndrome, also known to induce very low levels of blood pressure. Notorious for causing tremendous pain to individuals, the affliction is reportedly comparable to the pain of bones breaking. As is the case with malaria, however, there is currently no internationally recognized vaccine to combat the effects of dengue fever. We can say, therefore, that measures promoted by World Malaria Day are applicable to us here in the Philippines as well.

Similar to World Malaria Day, World Immunization Week concerns itself with educating individuals, to enable them to protect themselves against potentially fatal diseases. However, predominantly focused upon vaccinations and vaccination-preventable illnesses, World Immunization Week also addresses the myths and concerns surrounding immunization. For instance, a popular vaccination urban legend, the fear that 'vaccines can increase the likelihood of autism’ is a primary example of the type of rumour World Immunization Week aims to discredit. While it is important, of course, to question the effectiveness and risks of treatment - as evaluating prescriptions and medicine is critical in making more informed choices about your health - it is equally important to evaluate the sources from which you derive your information. This is due to the fact that there are often many false rumours about vaccinations that spread through the internet and news which aim to deter individuals from immunizing themselves and their children based on faulty logic and unsubstantiated claims. The harmful effects of misleading information on a range of treatments, such as vaccination, have spawned many efforts the world over to debunk such myths. For instance, in his book ‘Bad Science’, Ben Goldacre has attempted to address and clarify the dubious link between vaccines and autism. After having conducted further investigation into the claim, he explained that the person behind such an uneducated claim was a ‘scientist’ conducting research from the shed of the back of his house. Although he wasn’t starting a meth lab, this ‘scientist’ managed to scare many parents into thinking that vaccinations are dangerous and even fatal. As a result, World Immunization Week will be launched alongside World Malaria Day by the WHO in order to properly educate individuals on the true, life-saving potential of vaccinations, and to promote their use in a world where more than 3 million people die from vaccine-preventable diseases annually.

Personally, as an aspiring doctor, I believe it is vital for everyone to know how to combat vectors and minimize the risk of transmission; I firmly believe that these two major events, concerning health awareness and education, are things that people should watch out for.

Whether or not you are travelling in or out of the country, there will be the possibility of disease lurking behind the shadows. Fear not though! As a healthy individual, your immune system is well prepared to combat ‘common’ illnesses fairly well. By fairly well, however, I mean such run-of-the-mill illnesses, such as the flu, can be beaten in a fair amount of days with proper bed rest, food and water, and nothing less. However, such inconveniences are often extremely troubling for many people, as is the case for many of you who are travelling.

So, what can you do, as careful and smart individuals, to prevent the onset of such lingering disorders? For one, you could follow these simple precautionary measures:

1. Install window screens that can prevent mosquitoes from entering your house. (If already installed, inspect for any tears and replace them if needed.)

2. Spray insect repellant when you go outdoors, especially when you are going to rural and suburban areas for a long period of time

3. Remove stagnant water where mosquitoes breed i.e. in old flower pots, tyres and containers.

4. Wear light coloured, long sleeved shirts and trousers whenever possible, to minimize contact surface area for vectors to attach to.

5. Get vaccinated against various diseases (especially from ones carried by vectors). Ask your family doctor and keep track of your record.

            Many of the points above are fairly straightforward, yet still they are not usually practiced faithfully outside school. The next step? Spread the word and don’t forget to take your WHO boarding pass with you when you travel!

You can print your boarding pass (back to back) here!:

http://www.who.int/campaigns/world-health-day/2014/boarding-pass1.pdf?ua=1

Written by:

Elijah Lagman, Year 12